Sangam Literature

Sangam Literature – சான்றோர் செய்யுள்

Sangam literature is a collection of chosen poems.  They were put together by poets and scholars in Madurai many centuries after the poems were written.  Unfortunately, we have lost all the other ancient poems that were not included in this collection.  The conventions and sophistication of these incredibly sweet poems reveal the fact that there had been a literary tradition for many centuries before this mature poetry arose, and that these poems didn’t rise with perfection in isolation.  The conventions for these poems are seen in the ancient grammar text Tholkāppiyam, the grammar text which has recorded the then existing ancient knowledge, as indicated by the author in about 200 places. 

Sangam poetry laid down the foundation for the entire Thamizh poetic tradition that has flourished for over two thousand years.  It is the root of the massive Thamizh literary tree from which branches have spread in many different directions.  The predominantly secular Sangam poems influenced the later religious works of Jain, Buddhist, Saivite and Vaishnavite poets.  The universality of emotions, which are revealed through the natural elements of the five landscapes, has made the poems timeless, and for all cultures. 

There are 18 Sangam books – Ten long poems (Pathuppāttu – பத்துப்பாட்டு) and eight anthologies (Ettuthokai – எட்டுத்தொகை), for a total of 2362 poems written by 544 poets, and 82 poems written by anonymous authors.  There are over 26 thousand lines of poems.  The bulk of the literature was written between 3rd century B.C. and 3rd century A. D.  The poets, both men and women, came from all backgrounds – kings, noble men, learned men, doctors, businessmen, teachers, metal smiths, goldsmiths, cattle herders etc. etc.  

Ancient commentators referred to Sangam literature as சான்றோர் செய்யுள் – ‘The poetry of the wise’.  The word Sangam is not Thamizh.  It is not used anywhere in Sangam literature.  It is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘sangha’, which means ‘academy or fraternity’.  It comes from the Buddhist and Jain sanghas that existed in Madurai in ancient times.  In A. K. Ramanujan’s words, “This spurious name Sangam (fraternity, community) for the poetry is justified not by history, but by poetic practice.”

The word Sangam is mentioned for the first time in Thamizh literature in the 8th century commentary of Iraiyanār Akapporul, by Nakkeerar, which describes scenarios of a first Sangam with 4,449 poets lasting for 4,450 years participated by the gods Sivan, Murukan, and Kuberan, and a second Sangam with 3,700 poets lasting for 3,700 years and the last Sangam where the eight anthologies were written. He also mentions that the third Sangam lasted for 1,850 years and produced the eight anthologies.  Despite the obvious exaggerations, there appears to have been organizations in Madurai in ancient times that nurtured Thamizh.

Evidence of a Thamizh Sangam in Madurai in the 9th century is seen in the Pāndiyan copper plates from Thalavāypuram (910 A.D.), which has the words, ‘the founding of Southern Madurai and nurturing Thamizh by establishing a fine Sangam there for precious Thamizh’, and the copper plates from Chinnamanūr (926 A.D.) which has the words, ‘founding the fertile city of Madurai  and fortifying it, and appearing great among scholars after having himself done faultless research in bright Thamizh and the Northern language, because of which his intellect broadened his mind, and having the Mahabharatha brought into Thamizh and establishing a Sangam in Madurai’.  There might have been a group of Thamizh scholars in Madurai as seen in the rock inscriptions of Erukkankudi (829 A.D.) with the words ‘the lord of the excellent Ālankudi praised in all the worlds, on the firm big bench of stone in Koodal with cool Thamizh great in words’.       

Sangam Age:  There is a lot of evidence proving that the bulk of the literature was written from 300 B.C. to 300 A.D.  G. K. Sesha Iyer suggested 2nd century A.D. when the bulk of the literature was composed.  Nilakanda Sastri suggested that the bulk of the literature was composed between 100 and 250 A.D.  There is not a single reference to the Pallavas who established their rule in Kānchi around 275 A.D; they must have been written before the Pallava arrival.  Also, we have detailed description of foreign trade, especially with Greece, found in these poems, with descriptions of their ships, their gold coins, wines etc.  The trade did not continue past the 3rd century A.D.  We have the accounts and observations of Greek and Roman writers like the author of Periplus (A.D. 70), Pliny (A.D. 78), and Ptolemy (A.D. 140), which have elaborate descriptions of many cities and ports in the Thamizh country.  The Sri Lankan king Gajabāhu I and Chēran Chenguttuvan of Pathitruppathu were contemporaries.  King Gajabāhu reigned from 173 to 195 A.D.  This Gajabāhu synchronism is accepted by most scholars today. 

Epigraphical evidence in Thamizhi (Thamizh Brahmi):  The Māngulam cave inscriptions were first noted in 1882, observed again in 1906 and determined in 1965 by Iravatham Mahadevan to have inscriptions from the 2nd century B.C.  The inscriptions record the gift of a monastery to Nantasiri Kuvan, a senior Jaina monk.  Two of the caves had inscriptions about King Nedunchezhiyan. 

The Jambai cave inscription dated the 1st century A.D. was discovered in 1981 by the Archaeological Department.  It states that the hermitage was given by Athiyamān Nedumān Anji.  It records the grant of the cave on the north bank of the South Pennar River near Thirukoyilur in Vilupparam district by Athiyamān Nedumān Anji, who was one of the seven great donor kings (கடையெழு வள்ளல்கள்) of ancient Thamizhakam.

The discovery of cave inscriptions was made at Pukalur (புகளூர்) in 1928.  Pukalur is situated on the south bank of River Kaviri about 15 km. northwest of Karur, the ancient Chēra capital, which is in modern Karur district.  However, its historical significance was only recognized almost four decades later, in 1965.  Out of the 12 inscriptions, 2 refer to the Chēra royal family.  Both of these inscriptions record the construction of a rock shelter for Cenkāyapan, a senior Jaina monk when Ilankadunko, the son of king Perunkatunkō who was the son of King Āthan Selirumporai, became the heir apparent.  King Perunkatunkō was the poet Pālai Pādiya Perunkatunkō who wrote 68 poems, 67 in Pālai Thinai and one in Puranānuru.  Iravatham Mahadevan has dated these to the 2nd century A.D.      

Ancient Commentaries for the Sangam books:

Ainkurunūru:  There is an ancient 13th century A.D. anonymous commentary.  However, it is not a detailed one.
Kurunthokai:  Tradition says that Pērasiriyar and Nachinārkkiniyar wrote commentaries, neither of which have been found.
Natrinai:  No ancient commentary is available.
Akanānūru:  There is an ancient commentary of unknown authorship with brief notes for the first 90 poems, probably written in the 13th century A.D.  
Pathitruppathu:  It has an old, brief commentary of unknown authorship, probably written in the 13th century A.D.
Puranānūru:  An old commentary of unknown authorship, probably from the 12th century A.D. is available for the first 266 poems.
Pathuppāttu:  Nachinārkkiniyar wrote full–fledged commentaries for the 10 long poems in the 13th century A.D. or earlier.
Paripādal:  Parimēlalakar wrote a full–fledged commentary in the 13th century A.D. or earlier
Kalithokai:  Nachinārkkiniyar wrote a full–fledged commentary in the 13th century A.D. or earlier.

Loss and Recovery:  We lost these manuscripts, which were etched on palm, for over 800 years.  We knew of their existence since there were references to them in the commentaries written many centuries after the Sangam age.  They were buried amidst the collections of Saivite monasteries and some families, without anyone knowing of their existence.  They were re–discovered by U.V. Swaminatha Iyer (1855 – 1942) and C. W. Thamotharam Pillai ((1832 – 1901) in the late 19th century.  U.V. Swamintha Iyer started the process in 1883 at the Thiruvāvaduthurai Saiva monastery, finding 17 out of the 18 Sangam books, and both these men, along with the help of a few other scholars completed the work of editing and bringing them to print, over the next few decades.  But for Swaminatha Iyer, this process of recovery would not have started then.  We owe immense gratitude to him, and to all the other scholars who helped him.  They went all over the Thamizh land and searched for ancient palm manuscripts.  They collected a lot of manuscripts.  They then edited and published the Sangam books during the last quarter of the 19th century and the first quarter of the 20th century.

Nature Poetry:  Sangam poetry is nature poetry.  The elements of nature are intertwined with love, valor, agony, ecstasy, kindness, war, cruelty, honor, charity, friendship and many more facets of humanity.  They are used in similes, metaphors and suggestions to reveal human emotions and situations.  The Sangam poets never lost sight of the physical world around them.  Keenly observing nature, they brought to life the fauna and flora, and used them effectively in almost every poem, to reveal human emotions, thereby creating beautiful vignettes.  There are over one hundred trees described in the poems.  One can travel back in time and see many mammals, reptiles, insects, birds, bushes, vines, flowers, mountains, forests, ponds, waterfalls, rivers and streams in the Thamizh country.  The sky with the constellations, sun, moon, stars and planets are also used effectively.  The tiny red velvet bugs of the rainy season, to the mighty elephant in the jungle, are part of the drama.  A piece of foam dashing on the rocks in a flooding stream and losing itself little by little, is used to describe the heroine fading away in pain in Kurunthokai 290.

Secular Poetry:  Sangam literature is mostly secular, reflecting the early Thamizh culture.  However, even the earlier works Natrinai, Kurunthokai, Akanānūru, Ainkurunūru, Pathitruppathu and Puranānūru have a few references to Puranic stories with Sivan and Thirumāl.  The later works Paripādal and Thirumurukātruppadai are bakthi literature works, the former with about two thirds of bakthi material and the latter being totally a bakthi poem.  The anthology Kalithokai has many references to Puranic stories with Sivan and Thirumāl.  Perunthēvanār’s invocation poems were added to Puranānūru, Natrinai, Kurunthokai and Akanānūru, when the texts were compiled into anthologies, which is many centuries after the Sangam era.  However, only in Puranānūru and Kalithokai, the bakthi poem has been inserted as poem 1.  We need to be aware that Sivan, Murukan and Mother goddess are all ancient Thamizh gods.  Puranic stories were created later, using them.  In Iravatham Mahadevan’s words, “All the gods in all the temples in India are pre–Aryan.  However, they have been Sanskitized”.  In the early Sangam poems, Murukan was a mountain deity and mother goddess was a forest deity.     

Akam and Puram – According to Nachinārkkiniyar in his Tholkāppiyam commentary (Porulathikāram 56), ‘Akam’ and ‘Puram’ are like the inner palm and outer side of the hands, respectively, when the palms are held together as in the Vanakkam symbol.   It could not have been explained any better.

Akam:  Akam poems concern the love between a man and a woman, in all phases – pre–marital, during marriage and during separation.  About 78% of Sangam poems are in the Akam Thinai.

Puram:  Puram poems deal with topics such as greatness of kings, heroism of warriors, charity of kings and rich men, friendships between kings and poets, battles, ethics, and the lives of wandering bards and poets.

The Eight Anthologies – Ettuthokai

“நற்றிணை நல்ல குறுந்தொகை, ஐங்குறுநூறு, ஒத்த பதிற்றுப்பத்து ஓங்கு பரிபாடல், கற்றறிந்தார் ஏத்தும் கலியோடு, அகம், புறம் என்று இத்திறத்த எட்டுத் தொகை”.

The eight anthologies consist of poems divided into two broad categories – Akam (interior) and Puram (exterior – king, heroism, battle, ethics and wandering bards and poets).   Puranānūru and Pathitruppathu are the only two that belong to the Puram category.

1.  Natrinai:  This Akam anthology has 400 poems written by 175 poets.  The poems are written in Akaval meter.  The poems are from 9 to 12 lines.  Poem 234 is missing, and only parts of 395 have been recovered.  This collection was put together under the auspices of Pannaadu Thantha Maaran Vazhuthi, who himself was a poet.  Poems Kurunthokai 270, Natrinai 97 and Natrinai 301 were written by him.  There are 59 historical references.  The 3 great kings and small-region kings are mentioned in some poems.  Even though these are Akam poems, there is information about society in general.  There are elaborate commentaries by Po.Ve. Somasundaranar and Avvai Duraisamy.  

2.  Kurunthokai:  This Akam anthology has 401 poems written by 205 poets.  One poem could have been added later.  The poems are from 4 to 9 lines.  The collection was compiled by Poorikko.  The name suggests that he was a king.  There are 27 historical references in Kurunthokai.  Despite being Akam poems, these poems have information about ancient Thamizh society.  There are elaborate commentaries by U.Ve. Swaminatha Iyer and Po.Ve. Somasundaranar. 

3.  Ainkurunūru:  This is an Akam anthology with 500 short poems, as the title indicates.  The collection was compiled by Pulathurai Mutriya Koodalur Kizhār, a scholar, under the auspices of the Chera king Yānaikatchey Māntharan Cheral Irumporai .  It is arranged in five sections, each of 100 verses, each dealing with once facet of Akam – Kurinji, Neythal, Marutham, Mullai and Pālai.  The poems are from 3 to 6 lines.  Within the main 5 divisions, the poems are sets of 10 with thematic headings like ‘Monkeys, boars, peacocks etc. etc.  Each set of 10 poems are based on a single topic.  It has 17 historical references. These Akam poems have information about ancient Thamizh society.  Poems 171-180 are written in Anthāthi style. 

Kapilar wrote the Kurinji poems, Ōrampōkiyār wrote the Marutham poems, Ammoovanār wrote the Neythal poems, Pēyanār wrote the Mullai poems and Ōthalānthaiyār wrote the pālai poems.  There are elaborate commentaries by Po.Ve. Somasundarnar, Avvai Duraisamy, A. Dakshimamurthy and Thi. Sathasiva Iyer.

4.  Pathitruppathu:  This Puram collection had 100 poems originally, as the name implies.  Only 80 poems have survived.  The first ten and the last ten are missing.  It deals with the exploits and achievements of just one dynasty – the Chēras.  It is unique in that sense since it is exclusively devoted to the Chēra kings.

The kings described in this collection are Imayavarampan Nedunchēralāthan (11–20), Palyānai Selkelu Kuttuvan (21–30), Kalankāykanni Nārmudichēral (31–40), Kadal Pirakōttiya Chenguttuvan (41–50), Ādukotpāttu Chēralāthan (51–60), Selvakkadungo Valiyāthan (61–70), Perumchēral Imruporai (71–80), and Ilanchēral Irumporai (81–90).

Each set of ten has been appended with a ‘pathikam’ (epilog), which furnishes us with details of the author, the hero, his lineage etc.  These epilogs have been added much later, but it appears that the historical information they provide could have been drawn from earlier resources.  Poems 31-40 are written in Anthāthi style.

Pathitruppathu was discovered in the form of palm manuscripts by U. V. Swaminatha Aiyar, who also brought it to print in 1904, and edited it, supplying a detailed commentary.  A second edition appeared in 1920.  It had an old commentary from the 13th century.  The author of that commentary is unknown.  There are elaborate commentaries by Arul Ampalavanar and Avvai Duraisamy.

5.  Paripādal:  This is unique among Sangam books, since it has both Akam and Puram poems.  The poems are 32 to 140 lines.  It is one of the later anthologies. It was written a few centuries after the earlier ones.  The collection has 22 poems, written in Paripādal meter for music.  The melodies are Pālai Yāzh, Thiram and Kānthāram.  The topics for the poems are Thirumāl, Murukan, and Vaikai River.  Poems for Thirumāl are 1, 2, 3, 4, 13, 15.  Poems for Murukan are 5, 8. 9, 14, 17, 18, 19, 21.  Poems for Vaiyai river are 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 16, 20, 22.   Paripādal has lots of references to the Pandiyan king.  There are no references for the Chozha king, Chera king and the small-region kings.

Paripādal has both Akam and Puram elements.  U. Ve. Swaminatha Iyer was the first one who brought it to us in text form, from palm manuscripts.  He did this in 1918.  There is an ancient commentary by Parimēlazhakar.  There is an elaborate later commentary by Po. Ve. Somasundaranar, with meanings for all the words. 

6.  Kalithokai:   This Akam anthology has 150 poems in the kali meter, of 12 to 80 lines by 5 poets, each of whom wrote in a different Akam theme.  The first poem is an invocation poem to God.   S. V. Damodaram Pillai who found these original manuscripts and wrote a commentary for them, believed that the entire book was the work of one poet and that it was written a couple of centuries later than the other books.  There is an elaborate ancient commentary by Nachinārkkiniyar with meanings for all the words.

Kamil Zvelebil is also of the view that the whole book was written by one person in the Pāndiyan kingdom.  K.N. Sivaraja Pillai, Rajamanickanār, Takanobu Takahashi and others hold the same view.  However, some scholars believe that this collection was written in earlier times like the other anthologies, but in a different style of writing and with many puranic stories. 

What we see in the modern editions, are Kapilar for Kurinji, Pālai Pādiya Perunkadungō for Pālai, Nallanthuvanār for Neythal, Nalluthiran for Mullai and Maruthan Ilanākanār for Marutham.

7.  Akanānūru:  This Akam anthology has 400 poems written by 142 poets.  The poems are 13 to 31 lines.  This anthology has also been called ‘Nedunthokai Nānuru’ since the poems are long.   All the poems are in Akam thinai, as the name implies.  All the poems have reached us intact.  There are 288 historical references.  Poems 1 through 120 are called Kalitru Yaanai Nirai (a row of male elephants).  Poems 121 through 300 are called Manimidai Pavazham (Gems mixed with coral).  Poems 301 through 400 are called Nithila Kovai (Pearl strand).   There are two elaborate commentaries with word-by-word meanings.  One is written jointly by Na.Mu. Venkatasami Naattaar and Ra. Venkatachalam Pillai.  The other one is written by Po.Ve. Somasundaranar.

8.  Puranānūru:  It has 400 poems and they deal with Puram (exterior).  The poems were written by both male and female poets.  The poems are 4 to 40 lines and are composed by 156 poets.  There were 14 kings, and 15 women among these poets.  The female poet Avvaiyār wrote 33 poems.  Avvai Duraisamy has written an elaborate commentary with meanings for all the words.

There is a total of 138 poems which praise the 43 kings belonging to the Chēra, Chōzha and Pāndiyan dynasties.  There are 141 poems in praise of 48 small–region kings – the main ones are Athiyamān Nedumān Anji, Vēl Pāri, Āy Andiran, Pēkan, Kumanan, Kāri, Nānjil Valluvan, Pittan Kotran and Elini.  There are 121 poems whose heroes are unknown due to missing words, defective colophons, fragmentary nature of the poems etc.

The Ten Long Poems – Pathuppāttu

“திருமுருகு பொருநாறு பாணிரண்டு முல்லை

பெருகு வள மதுரைக்காஞ்சி – மருவினிய

கோல நெடுநல்வாடை கோல் குறிஞ்சி பட்டினப்

பாலை கடாத்தொடும் பத்து”.

These are long poems which are of 103 to 782 lines, and they do not totally fit well into the Akam (interior) and Puram (exterior) categories, except for Kurunjippāttu which is considered to be Akam.

The ancient scholar Nachinārkkiniyar wrote an elaborate commentary for the Pathuppāttu poems in the 13th century.  U.V. Swaminatha Iyer published Pathuppāttu in 1889.  Po.Ve. Somasundanara wrote an elaborate commentary with meanings for all the words.  Five of the poems are guidance (ātruppadai) poems – Thirumurukātruppadai, Porunarātruppadai, Sirupānātruppadai, Perumpānātruppadai and Malaipadukadām (Kootharātruppadai).  This genre is found in the earlier Puranānūru and Pathitruppathu poems.  In a guidance poem, a bard who obtained gifts from a king urges another bard to go to that benevolent king who is a patron of arts, to receive gifts.  He also informs him about the places to stay on the way, and the hospitality of the people there.

கூத்தரும் பாணரும் பொருநரும் விறலியும்

ஆற்றிடைக் காட்சி உறழத் தோன்றிப்

பெற்ற பெருவளம் பெறார்க்கு அறிவுறிஇ

சென்று பயன் எதிரச் சொன்ன பக்கமும்  (தொல்காப்பியம், புறத்திணையியல் 25) 

This is true in all the poems except Thirumurukātruppadai where the seeker is guided to the god Murukan.

These ten long poems reveal historical, social and other information.  From these one can gather information about trade with the Greeks, foreign traders living in Kaviripoompattinam, export of goods, warehouses, tax collectors, import of horses by ships, astronomy, seven great benefactors of the ancient Thamizh land, small-region kings, three great kings, wars between kings, battle camps, foreign mercenaries, memorial stones, toll roads, occupations, bartering, marriage customs, status of men and women, jewels, food, courts and judges, music, structure of lutes, dances, plays, painting art, religions, palaces, huge mansions, huts, farming, glory of Koodal (Madurai) city, splendor of Kānji (Kanjeepuram), hospitality of the Thamizh people, fauna, flora etc.

1.  Thirumurukātruppadai:  This poem with 317 lines is in the Akaval/Āsiriyappā meter.  It was written by Nakkeerar for the god Murukan.  The six holy Murukan sites of Thirupparankundram, Thirucheer Alaivāy, Thiruvāvinankudi, Thiruvērakam, Kundruthoru ādal and Pazhamuthir Chōlai are described.  Unlike the other ātruppadai songs which guide artists to donors, this poem guides seekers to Murukan.  It has been included in the Eleventh Thirumurai of the Saivite Canon and it is recited by many Thamizh people as part of their daily worship. 

2.  Porunarātruppadai:  This poem has 248 lines in Akaval/Āsiriyappā meter.  It was written by poet Mudathāmakkaniyār.  The king here is Chōzhan Karikālan.  The poet describes the king’s victory at the battle of Venni, his prowess and rule.  The fertility and wealth of the Chōzha country is described in detail.  There is also a lovely description of a virali.   

3.  Sirupānātruppadai:   This poem has 269 lines in Akaval/Āsiriyappā meter.  It was written by poet Nallūr Nathathanār.  The King is Ōymān Nalliyakōdan, the ruler of Māvilangai.  This is the shortest of the guidance poems.   The valor and greatness of the king is mentioned.  Also mentioned are the seven great benefactors of the ancient Thamizh land. There is a beautiful description of viralis.  

4.  Perumpānātruppadai:   This poem has 500 lines in Akaval/Āsiriyappā meter.  It was written by poet Kadiyalūr Urithirankannanār who also wrote Pattinappālai.  The king is Thondaimān Ilanthiraiyan, the ruler of Kānji.  The perumpānars are bards who played large lutes accompanied by singing.  This poem has detailed descriptions of the five Thinais.  Yavanars are mentioned.  It also describes the lives of peasants.  The ancient city of Kānji with festivals and fame is praised highly.  

5.  Mullaippāttu:  This poem has 103 lines in Akaval/Āsiriyappā meter.  It was written by poet Nappoothanār. The king is Thalaiyālankānathu Cheruvendra Nedunchezhiyan.  This is the shortest of the 10 long poems.  The poem describes the queen waiting patiently for her husband who has gone on a military campaign, his battle camp, Yavanars (Ionian Greeks) in the camp, women in the camp, and elephant trainers who utter commands to the elephants in a northern tongue.

6.  Mathuraikkānji:   This poem has 782 lines in the Akaval/Āsiriyappā meter mixed with vanji meter.  It was written by poet Māngudi Maruthanār (Māngudi Kizhār), for Pāndiyan king Nedunchezhiyan.  Kānji is based on the philosophy of instability and perishability of the world and life.  This long poem contains didactic matter, as do other poems composed by this poet.  There are descriptions of Buddhist monasteries, Brahmin monasteries and Jain temples.  There are also descriptions of the king’s victories in battles and the various riches brought back by his warriors.  The sights and sounds of Koodal (Madurai) city are captured beautifully in the morning, afternoon, at dusk, midnight and at dawn. 

7.  Nedunalvādai:  This poem has 188 lines in Akaval/Āsiriyappā meter.  It was written by poet Nakkeeranār, son of Mathurai Kanakkāyanār.  Scholars speculate that the king is Pāndiyan Nedunchezhiyan, since there is a description of neem leaves tied to spears.  The title means ‘The Good Long North Wind’.  It describes the cold season and the difficulties of humans and animals that struggle to handle the chilly weather.  This poem is a combination of love and heroic elements.  It is the story of a king in the battlefield, and his anxious queen waiting for him in the palace.

8.  Kurinjippāttu:   This poem which means ‘the song of the mountains’ has 261 lines in Akaval/Āsiriyappā meter and was written by poet Kapilar for the Aryan king Pirahathan (Brahadathan), according to the colophon.  What is interesting is that this king learned Thamizh and wrote a sweet poem.  (Kurunthokai 184).  This poem describes the Thamizh mountain country, its fauna and flora, and its marriage customs.  A chief of a mountain falls in love with a young woman and the love is reciprocated.  The heroine’s friend assists the lovers to meet.  The heroine’s family finds changes in their daughter.  They worry and bring diviners to find out the reason for her illness.  However, the wise friend helps the young woman by talking to the foster mother so that a marriage can be arranged. 

9.  Pattinappālai:   This poem has 301 lines.  They are written in Akaval/Āsiriyappā meter mixed with vanji meter.  The vanji lines were introduced to affect a change in the rhythm.  It was written by poet Kadiyalūr Urithirankannanār who also wrote Perumpānātruppadai.  The king is Chōzhan Karikālan.  In this poem, the hero says that even if he were given Kaveripoompattinam, the capital city of the Chōzha kingdom, he will not leave his lover.  The poem describes the harbor, the big ships that arrive with merchandise, fishermen, dancing, wine drinking, Buddhist and Jain monasteries and as well the worship of Murukan.  It describes Karikālan’s struggle to regain his rightful throne and his invasion of enemy countries.  It also describes his activities during peaceful times and his patronage of artists. 

10.  Malaipadukadām:   This poem has 583 lines in the Akaval/Āsiriyappā meter.  It was written by poet Perunkundroor Perunkousikanār for King Nannan Venmān.  The title, meaning ‘Secretions Oozing from the Mountains’, probably implies waterfalls gushing down the mountains, or the various sounds that arise in the mountains.  This poem has another name, Kūtharatruppadai.  The poem describes many facets of life in the different communities in Nannan’s country.  There are exquisite descriptions of nature in this poem. 

Thinais

There are seven thinai classifications in Puram, and five in Akam.  In addition, there are 2 more Akam thinais which are rarely used.  These are seen only in parts of a couple of Kalithokai poems and in a few Puranānuru poems.  They are Kaikkilai and Perunthinai.  Kaikkilai is one–sided love.  Perunthinai is unsuitable love.  The reason Kaikkilai and Perunthinai poems are found in Puranānuru is because the characters in these poems are historical persons.  These poems do not follow the Akam rule of not having the names of the characters in the poems.

Puram Thinais:  There are 9 Puram thinais and 2 Akam thinais in Puranānuru.  The Puram thinais are Karanthai, Kānji, Thumpai, Nochi, Pādān, Pothuviyal, Vanji, Vākai and Vetchi.  Other than Pothuviyal and Pādān, the thinais are all named after flowers.  The Puram thinai poems are spoken by the poet himself, and frequently associated with real people, places and events in history.

Kaikkilai and Perunthinai poems are seen in Puranānuru, despite being Akam thinais.  The reason is because they have names of the characters revealed, which cannot suit the Akam thinai criteria.  Scholars have revealed elements of both these thinais in just a couple of Akam poems.

Karanthai: Retrieving cattle that were taken by enemies.

Kānji:  Protecting one’s country from an invading king is the theme.

Thumpai:  Battles between kings are described here.

Nochi: Protection of the fort surrounded by the enemy king forces is the theme.

Pādān:  Singing the praises of kings and leaders

Pothuviyal:  General topics and common matters,

Vanji:  Preparation for invasions and battles are mentioned here.

Vākai:  Victory celebrations are mentioned here.

Vetchi:  Prelude to battle and cattle raid are described here.

Akam Thinais

Here are five thinais, and they are named after flowers and trees.  These are Kurinji, Mullai, Marutham, Neythal and Pālai.  In addition to the plant that gives it its name, each of these five Akam thinais is associated with a certain kind of land, flora and fauna found in that land, people who live there, a season, a time of day and a situation in the development or fulfillment of love between a man and a woman.  The poets have used Akam thinais to achieve poetic effect, and it is very important to know them, to appreciate Sangam poetry.  The metaphors and similes in the poems are based on the elements in the particular landscape.   Fauna, flora and the landscape have been used to express the physical traits and emotions of the characters in the poems.  Akam thinais do not allow the poets to mention the names of the characters.  This trait makes these poems acceptable for all cultures and for all times.

Kurinji:  Mountains and adjoining lands.  It is named after the Kurinji flower that blooms once in 12 years 0n mountain slopes.  Kurinji and Kānthal flowers grow in the mountains.   Murukan is the god of the Kurinji land.  There are bears, tigers, lions, elephants, snakes, parrots and peacocks there.  Wild rice, millet, and tubers are grown.  Sandal wood trees abound.  The mountain dwellers hunt, collect honey and raise millet.  Villages are called ‘siru kudi’ and ‘kurichi’.   Springs and waterfalls abound.   Music is created with Kurinji lute in Kurinji tunes.

Lovers union is the main sentiment of Kurinji thinai.  The subject of the poems are usually the secret meeting of lovers, which might be at the millet field, or at night when the heroine slips out of the house evading her mother, and the mother suspects that her daughter is up to mischief.

Neythal:  Seashore and adjoining lands.   It is named after the blue waterlily that grows near the seashore.  Fish catching and salt making is done here.  Blue waterlilies grow in the ponds.  Cormorants, gulls, herons and pelicans are the birds and crocodiles, sharks and buffaloes live here.   Screwpine trees grow, and there are water wells and salt water ponds.  Villages are called ‘pattinam’ and ‘pākkam’.  Music is created with vilari lute in sevvali tunes.

Anxious waiting is the theme of Neythal thinai.  The subject is often separation, during which the unmarried woman believes that her lover has abandoned her.  Occasionally, Neythal poems concern the journey of the hero along the beach in his chariot as he comes to see his beloved.

Pālai:  Dry wilderness and adjoining lands.  It is named after the Pālai tree which grows in very dry areas.   Tigers, red foxes, vultures, eagles and pigeons live in this pālai land.  Irruppai, ōmai and uzhignai trees are in this land.  The common flowers are kuravam and pāthiri.   There are robberies on the wasteland paths.   Villages are ‘kurumpu’ and ‘paranthalai’.  Water sources are dried springs and there are ring wells.  Music is created with pālai lute in panchuram tunes.

Separation is the theme of Pālai.  The hero sets out across the wilderness to elope with his beloved, or, if he’s unaccompanied, to make enough money to marry her on his return.  Occasionally the married hero undertakes a journey for business purposes.   The time is midday and the season is summer.

Mullai:  Forest and adjoining lands.  It is named after jasmine, and the vine grows wild in forest areas, especially in the rainy seasons.  Cattle herds, deer, rabbits, and wild fowl live there.  Wild grain and millet is grown. Flowers are jasmine and thōndral, trees are kondrai and kāyā, and villages are ‘pādi’ and ‘chēri’.  Music is created with Mullai lute in sāthāri tunes.  Forest streams are active in the rainy season.

Patient waiting is the theme of Mullai.  The heroine waits for her man to return from a journey. Some poems in this category describe union. All concern the fertility of the rainy season in the forest meadows. Rainy season is the period. The time is evening.

Marutham:  Paddy fields and adjoining lands.  It is named after flowering Marutham trees which grows in agricultural areas.  White and red rice are grown, water buffalo is the animal, and lotus and lilies are the flowers.  The trees are Vanji, Kānchi and Marutham.  Settlements are ‘pērūr’ and ‘moothūr’.  Wells, ponds, rivers, and streams are all over the place.  The birds here are pelican, waterfowl and goose.  Marutham lute is used create Marutham tunes.   People work in the fields planting, weeding and cutting the rice stalks.

Lover’s infidelity and the beloved’s resentment are the themes in Marutham.  After marriage and usually after the couple have a son, the hero leaves his wife and begins to live with courtesans, or visit them regularly.  The time is midday.

Understanding Akam thinais:  It is very important to understand this to enjoy Akam poems.  Each Akam thinai consists of three components – Muthal, Karu and Uri.   Muthal consists of basic elements such as a tract of land, a season, and the time of day or night.  Karu consists of the flora and fauna in that tract, its inhabitants, their occupations, the culture etc.  Uri is the aspect peculiar to each landscape; more specifically, the feelings, deeds and situations of the dramatis personae in love poetry.

Comparing Akam and Puram thinais:  Akam means ‘that which is inside’ and Puram means, ‘that which is outside’, and they are the two sides of Sangam poetry.  For each Akam thinai, there is a coinciding Puram thinai.

The Puram poem is spoken by the poet, and has names, places and events of history.  The Akam poems are spoken by the hero, his friend, heroine, her friend (tholi), the friend’s mother (foster mother– sevili), the heroine’s real mother, the courtesan and the passer–by.

The two genres differ from each other not only in theme, but also in technique.  Akam poems make much use of images suggesting a mood and a situation, while Puram poems do not and are more straightforward.  For Akam, the mood and the situation are closely associated with each thinai, but, for Puram, the association is less.  In Akam poetry, themes described in poems are connected with each other, and, taken as a whole, form a ‘love drama’; each scene depicted in Puram poems is a solitary one and not connected with each other.  Puram poetry is far less conventional than Akam poetry, and its subject matter is easier to understand.  Akam poems have many similes and metaphors, and fauna and flora are used to express situations and human emotions.

Ullurai (உள்ளுறை) – Akam poems have hidden and implied meanings and suggestions.  The elements of nature are often used to reveal this.  Trying to find the embedded message is an intellectual challenge since many interpretations are possible for most poems.  Scholars interpret differently sometimes.  

Snapshot of life two thousand years ago:  The Sangam poems reveal many vivid images of the Thamizh country from two thousand years ago.  We see the fauna and flora in all the five landscapes, food people ate, clothing that people in different geographical regions wore – mountain dwellers wore grass and flower garments and others wore woven cotton and silk clothes, jewelry made with gold and precious stones, the lives of bards, dancers and musicians who played instruments, cattle herders playing their flutes, the various musical instruments, battles and warriors, trading with the Greeks and Romans whose large ships arrived in ports,  just reigns of small–region kings, great friendships between poets and kings,  the three great kings who battled with each other constantly, the seven great donors and small region kings, trades people did in the different landscapes, war equipment,  forts with moats, existence of metal smith workshops, knowledge of the sky – the sun, moon, venus, mars, saturn, mercury, Jupiter, comets and many constellations, casting of bronze bells using the lost wax method,  building of a small curved dam,  the heat and wafting aroma from sugar mills, using scissors for cutting hair, lizard omens, bird omens, an occasional kindness of a hunter who lets the bird he trapped fly away,  and even kindness of a ruthless, wild killer animal letting its prey with young ones,  get away.

Some Interesting Conventions and Facts that might help new readers:
1. Snakes are attacked by thunder, which chops off their heads and kills them.
2. Snakes spit sparkling gems.
3. Pearls drop off the tusks of elephants.
4. A tiger will not eat its prey if it does not fall on its right side.
5. Women pining in love get yellow pallor spots on their bodies, and their eyes become pale and yellow.  Their shoulders and arms become thin.  Bangles fall off their wrists.
6. There is a mythical creature called asunam.  The University of Madras lexicon defines asunam as a creature believed to be so susceptible to harmony, that when it is fascinated by notes of music, a sudden loud beat of the drum causes its instantaneous death.
7. There is a mighty animal Āli (ஆளி), which kills elephants.  It could be a hyena or a lion.
8. The heroine’s friend (thozhi) refers to the hero as ‘our lover’, since both women are very close friends.
9. The heroine’s friend is sometimes the voice of the heroine and she tells the hero what the heroine wants to tell him.  It is because of an old convention which is in the Tholkāppiyam, that the heroine cannot utter her love feelings directly to the hero.
10. The foster mother refers to the heroine as ‘my daughter’.  She is very close to the heroine.
11. The speakers of Puram poems are the poets. The speakers of Akam poems are the hero, heroine, heroine’s friend, heroine’s mother, heroine’s foster mother, hero’s charioteer, hero’s concubine and passers–by, when the hero and heroine are in the wasteland.
12. The fathers and brothers of the heroine have never been speakers of any poem.  However, they are referred to in the poems.
13. When the heroine refuses to respond to the hero, he climbs on a palmyra stem horse (madal ēruthal, meaning climbing on a palmyra stem or frond) and has it pulled through town for people to see and the heroine to feel embarrassed.  He does that as a last resort as a jilted lover.
14. When the heroine is lovesick and thin, her mother fears that she’s afflicted with a disease because of the wrath of Murukan, and brings a diviner to her house to appease Murukan, the mountain deity. The diviner (Velan) uses molucca beans and divines, offers a goat as sacrifice, ties a talisman on the heroine’s arms and does frenzied ritual dances on freshly laid sand in the front yard of the house that is decorated with flowers.
15.  A virali (விறலி) is a female artist who performs dances and also sings.  She belongs to the bard’s family. 
16. A ghoul protects wounded warriors on the battlefield, when they have nobody to guard them.
17. Young women are described as having ‘bright forehead’, ‘sharp teeth’, ‘thick, dark hair’, ‘fragrant hair, ‘deer–like looks’, ‘bamboo–like arms’, ‘swaying walk’, ‘delicate shoulders’, ‘eyes with red lines’ etc. These phrases are repeated quite often in the poems.  Young women drew designs on their breasts and shoulders, and these were called thoyyil.
18. There are 9 references to Yavanas (Greek Ionians – but the word was probably used for Romans and others later) in the poems. They bought pepper from us, brought wine, served as bodyguards to our kings, brought us female figurine lamps with cupped hands as oil wells – பாவை விளக்கு in Nedunalvādai 101–103, and had goose lamps like our குத்து விளக்கு – Perumpānatruppadai 316–317.  There are references in a couple of poems of Thamizh kings repelling attacks of the Aryans, Aryans training wild elephants, Āryan acrobats performing on ropes etc. There are also references to Mauryan incursions into the Thamizh country.

Words used to describe the hero in Marutham poems:  தண் துறை ஊரன், துறைகேழ் ஊரன், அணித்துறை ஊரன், மகிழ்நன், தண்ணம் துறைவன், மல்லல் ஊரன், பொய்கை ஊரன், யாணர் ஊரன், துறை நணி ஊரன், பூக்கஞல் ஊரன், கழனி ஊரன், புனல் அணி ஊரன், வண்டு தாது ஊதும் ஊரன், புனல் முற்று ஊரன், பழன ஊரன், நல் வயல் ஊரன், பெரும, மகிழ்நன், கொழுநன், அகல் துறை ஊரன்

Words used to describe the hero in Neythal poems:  கொண்கன், துறைவன், தண்ணம் துறைவன்,  மெல்லம்புலம்பன், இருங்கழிச் சேர்ப்பன், உரவுநீர் சேர்ப்பன், தண்கடல் சேர்ப்பன், தெண்கடல் சேர்ப்பன், பெருங்கடல் சேர்ப்பன், தண் புனல் சேர்ப்பன், கானல் துறைவன், பெரும்துறை சேர்ப்பன், புலவுநீர் சேர்ப்பன்,   நெடுநீர் சேர்ப்பன், நளிகடல் சேர்ப்பன், தூ மணல் சேர்ப்பன், தண்புனல் சேர்ப்பன், இடுமணல் சேர்ப்பன், திரை தரூஉம் தலைவன், தாழை சேர்ப்பன், தடவுநிலை சேர்ப்பன், உயர்மணல் சேர்ப்பன், வார்மணல் சேர்ப்பன், பெரும, விரிநீர்ச் சேர்ப்பன், கொண்கன், தேம் பாய் துறைவ, பனித்துறைச் சேர்ப்பன், மலி திரைச் சேர்ப்பன், அம் கானல் துறைவன், இலங்கு நீர்த் துறைகெழு கொண்கன், கானல் அம் பெருந்துறைச் சேர்ப்பன், மலி நீர்ச் சேர்ப்பன், பனி நீர்ச் சேர்ப்பன், பெரும் பௌவ நீர்த் துறைவன், தெண் கடல் பொருநன், கானலஞ் சேர்ப்பன், வரு திமில் எண்ணும் துறைவன், வளை மேய் பரப்பன், குவவு மணல் சேர்ப்பன், பூக்கேழ் புலம்பன்

Words used to describe the hero in Kurinji poems:  மலை கிழவோன், ஓங்குமலை நாடன், நெடுமலை நாடன், கிழவோம், பெருவரை நாடன், வெற்பன், மலை நாடன், கல்லக வெற்பன், கல் கெழு நாடன், பெருமலை நாடன், பெருங்கல் நாடன், குன்ற நாடன், சாரல் நாடன், நன்மலை நாடன், ஓங்குவரை நாடன், சூர்மலை நாடன், கெழுமலை நாடன், விலங்குமலை நாடன்,  மலைக் கிழவன், ஆடுமயில் அகவு நாடன், மழை விளையாடு நாடன், மலை வெற்ப, மலை கெழு வெற்பன், குன்றுகெழு நாடன்,  மாமலை சிலம்பன், ஆர்கலி வெற்பன், இலங்குமலை நாடன், இலங்கு மலை வெற்பன், யாறு நிறை பகரும் நாடன், ஏ கல் வெற்பன், மகிழ்நன், கூட்டு விரை கமழும் நாடன், பெருந்தேன் இறாஅல் கீறும் நாடன், கானக நாடன், வெறி கமழ் நாடன், சேய் மலை நாடன், அரு வரை நாடன், குன்று உயர் அடுக்கம் கொள்ளும் நாடன், பெரும, உயர் வரை நாடன், வான் தோய் வெற்பன், பெரு வரை அடுக்கத்து கிழவோன், பிறங்கல் மலை கிழவன், அம் மலை கிழவோன், கான நாடன், கானக நாடன், வரையக நாடன், குன்ற வெற்பன், மால் வரை நாடன், குன்றத்து அண்ணல், சாரல் நாடன், மல்கு நீர்ச் சேர்ப்ப, கான் கெழு நாடன், மை ஆடு சென்னிய மலை கிழவோனே, கோடு உயர் வெற்பன், மாக் கல் வெற்பன்

Words used to describe the hero in Pālai poems:  விடலை, காளை, தோன்றல், பெரும, இறு வரை நாடன், பூக் கேழ் ஊரன்

Words used to describe the hero in Mullai poems:  புறவின் நாடு கிழவோன், மென்புல வைப்பின் நாடு கிழவோன், நீடு நீர் பனித்துறை சேர்ப்பன், புறவணி நாடன், இருங்கலி வெற்பன், பெரும, புன் புல நாடன், கான் கெழு நாடன், வன்புல நாடன், வரையக நாடன்